The constants in this experiment were:
    The way the apparatus was set up
    Same atmospheric conditions
   The gauge and the length of the wires was the same
   The same method of attachment was used
   The same temperature points
   The chemicals that are being used to get to the temperatures
   The same place of application

    The manipulated variable in this experiment was the types of wire being used and the temperature points at which they are being tested. The responding variable was the weight at which the wires break at the different temperatures.
     To measure the responding variable, mass the weight of all of the materials below where the wire was connected to the lower portion of the apparatus. To accomplish this, place all of the parts into the small bucket and mass them with the triple beam balance. Also the mass of the liquids that are being used at the moment the wire breaks should be measured. To do this you have to measure 120 ml of H2O in the can, then mark it with a line of masking tape. Then you have to find the density and solve the equation m=d/v to find the mass of the liquid.
    According to my results the hypothesis was rejected, but I cannot be certain because the annealed steel was inconsistent in the results. From all three tests I concluded that the galvanized steel was stronger than the annealed steel and all the other wires I tested. Even though the annealed steel was inconsistent all of the results on that wire showed that even at its highest the annealed steel wire held significantly less than the galvanized steel wire. One question that I had during the testing with the Liquid nitrogen was why did all of the wires break above the liquid nitrogen.
    A possible systematic error was that the liquid nitrogen does have weight that I did not add to the weight of the tests.

The way the apparatus was set up
Same atmospheric conditions
The gauge and the length of the wires was the same
The same method of attachment was used
The same temperature points
  The chemicals that are being used to get to the temperatures
  The same place of application

The manipulated variable in this experiment was the types of wire being used and the temperature points at which they are being tested. The responding variable was the weight at which the wires break at the different temperatures.
     To measure the responding variable, mass the weight of all of the materials below where the wire was connected to the lower portion of the apparatus. To accomplish this, place all of the parts into the small bucket and mass them with the triple beam balance. Also the mass of the liquids that are being used at the moment the wire breaks should be measured. To do this you have to measure 120 ml of HO in the can, then mark it with a line of masking tape. Then you have to find the density and solve the equation m=d/v to find the mass of the liquid.
 

3. Testing one of the wires for extreme heat (see figure 3)
    a. Use one of the wires and wrap it around the eyelet screw that is hanging on the hanger two times, then around the wire itself seven times, through the hook again and around the wire three times.
    b. Use 10 cm on each end for the knots at the screws.
    c. Do the same on the bottom hook (you will not need to use the can for this experiment.)
    d. Use the torch to apply heat directly under the top screw wile adding weights to the bucket.
    e. Use the Thermal Copal to verify the temperature of the flame being applied to the wire
    f. When the wire breaks, measure how much weight is in the bucket, and add the weight of the apparatus
    g. Record the weight and the temperature at which the test wire broke.

INTRODUCTION
 This report will cover subjects of interest having to do with my project. The following sections will include information on: the five kinds of metal to be used in this experiment, Iron and steel manufacturing, wire making, flames, and also information on the chemicals used to apply the different temperatures to the wires.

MANUFACTURING OF IRON AND STEEL
Introduction
    Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon; it also contains a mixture of
other elements. Some alloys irons contain more carbon more than steels. Open-hearth iron and wrought iron contain only a few hundredths of one percent of carbon, Steels contain 0.04 percent to 2.25 percent of carbon, Cast iron, malleable cast iron, and pig iron contain between 2 to 4 percent. A group of iron alloys, called ferroalloys, are used in the manufacturing of iron and steel alloys; they contain 20 to 80 percent of an alloying element such as manganese, silicon, or chromium.
Pig Iron Production
    A blast furnace consists of a cylinder steel shell lined with any nonmetallic substance such as firebrick. The shell is narrowed at the top and at the bottom; the widest point is about one fourth the distance from the bottom of the shell. The bosh, the lower portion of the furnace, has several tubular openings, called tuyeres, through which air is blasted. Close to the bottom of the bosh is a hole where the molten pig iron flows when the furnace is tapped, above this hole but below the tuyeres, is another hole used to drain slag. The top of the furnace, which is about 27m high, has vents for the gases to escape and a pair of round hoppers with bell shaped valves through which the charge is introduced into the furnace. The materials are brought to the hoppers in dump cars, or skips, that are hauled up an external skip hoist. Blast furnaces operate continuously.
    The unprocessed materials are separated into several small charges prior to being fed into the furnace. They are introduces into the furnace at 10 to 15 minuet intervals. Slag is drawn from the top of the metal every 2 hours, and the iron itself is tapped about five times a day.
    The air that is used to supply the blast furnace is preheated to temperature between 540O and 870 O C. the heating is performed in stoves, which are cylinder, containing networks of firebrick. The bricks in the stoves are heated for several hours by burning blast furnace gas, the waste gases from the top of the furnace. Then the flame is turned off and the air is blown through the stove. The weight of the air used in the furnace is more than that of the other raw materials used.
    The process of tapping consists of knocking out a clay plug from the iron hole near the bottom of the bosh and allowing the molten metal to flow into a clay lined runner and then into a large brick lined metal container, which may be either a ladle or a rail car capable of holding as much as 100 tons of metal. Any slag that may flow from the furnace with the metal is skimmed off before it reaches the container. The container of molten pig iron is then transported to the steel making shop.
Other Methods of Iron Refining
    Most of the iron and steel manufacturing in the world is made from pig iron produced by the blast furnace process, other methods of iron refining are possible and have been practiced to a limited extent. One method is the ‘direct method’ of making iron and steel from ore without making pig iron. In this process iron ore and coke are mixed in a revolving kiln and heated to about 950 O C. carbon monoxide is given off from the heated coke just as in the blast furnace and reduces the oxides of the ore to metallic iron. The secondary reactions that occur in a blast furnace do not occur, and the kiln produces ‘sponge iron’ of much higher purity than pig iron. Pure iron also produced by electrolysis, by passing an electric current through a solution of ferrous chloride. Neither of these processes has achieved any great commercial significance.
Open Hearth Process
 The making of steel from pig iron through any method consists of burning out the leftover carbon and other impurities present in the iron. The high melting point, about 1370 degrees Celsius, prevents the use of ordinary fuels and furnaces. The open hearth furnace was developed to overcome this problem; it can operate at a high temperature by regenerative preheating the fuel gas and air used in the furnace. The exhaust gases from the furnace are drawn through a series of chambers containing brickwork and give most of their heat to the bricks. Then the flow is reversed and the fuel and air pass through the heated chambers and are warmed by the bricks through this process open hearth furnaces can reach temperatures as high as 1650 degrees Celsius.
    The furnace itself consists typically of a flat, rectangular brick hearth about 6m by 10m, which is roofed about 2.5m high. In front of the hearth is a series of doors that open to a working floor in front of the hearth. The entire hearth along with the working floor is one level above the ground; the heat regenerating chambers of the furnace take up the space beneath the hearth. A furnace this size produces about 100 metric tons of steel every 11 hours.
    The furnace is charged with cold and molten pig iron, scrap steel, and iron oar, which supply additional oxygen; limestone is added to make the slag more fluid. The properties of the charge vary within wide limits but a typical charge may consist of 56,750 kg of scrap steel, 11,350 kg of cold pig iron, 45,400 kg of molten pig iron, 11,800 kg of limestone, 900 kg of iron ore and 230 kg of fluorspar. After the furnace has been charge it is lighted at the bottom, the operator, to provide heat regeneration, changes the direction of the flame.
Chemically the action of the open hearth furnace consists of lowering the carbon content of the charge by oxidation and removing impurities such as silicon, phosphorous, manganese, and sulfur, which combine with the limestone to make slag. This reaction takes place while the metal in the furnace is melting, the temperature in the furnace is held between 1540 degrees Celsius and 1650 degrees Celsius until the molten metal has the desired carbon content. Drawing out a small amount of molten metal from the furnace, cooling it, and then subjecting it to physical examination or chemical analysis tests the metal.
    When the carbon content is at the desired level, the furnace is tapped through a hole at the rear of the furnace. The molten steel then flows through a short a trough to a ladle set below the furnace at ground level. From the ladle the steel is poured into cast iron molds that form ingots usually 1.5 m long and 48 cm square. The raw material for all forms of fabricated steel, these ingots weigh about 2.25 metric tons in this size.
Finishing Processes
   Steel is sold in a wide variety of sizes and shapes such as rods, pipes, railroad rails, channels, and I-beams. These shapes are produced art steel mills by rolling and forming heated ingots to the required shape. The work of steel also improves the quality of the steel by refining its crystalline structure and making the metal tougher.
   The basic process of working steel is known as hot rolling. In this process the cast ingot is heated to a bright red heat in a furnace called a soaking pit and is then passed through a series of pairs of metal rollers that squeeze it to the desired size and shape. The distance between the rollers decreases for each successive pair as the steel is elongated and reduced in thickness.
    The first pair of rollers through which the ingot passes is commonly called the blooming mill, the square billets of steel that the ingot produces are known as blooms. From the blooming mill, the steel is passed on to roughing mills and finally to finishing mills that reduces it to the correct cross section. The rollers of mills used to produce railroad rails and structural shapes such asv I-beams, H-beams, and angles are grooved to give the required shape.

There are five classifications of steel, they are:
          Carbon Steel
          Alloy Steels
          High Strength Low Alloy Steels
          Stainless Steels
          Tool Steels
    Carbon Steels make up more than 90 present of all steels, which contain various amounts of carbon, no more than 1.65 percent manganese, 0.60 percent silicon, and 0.60 percent copper.
   Alloy steels contain certain percents of elements such as vanadium, molybdenum, or other elements. Alloy steels contain larger amounts of other elements (such as manganese, silicon and copper) than do regular carbon steels.
HSLA steels, or High Strength Low Alloy Steels, are the newest of the five classifications of steel. They are cheaper and stronger than carbon steels of the same weight. Numerous buildings have been constructed with framework made out of HSLA steels.
Stainless steels contain chromium, nickel and other alloying elements that keep them bright and rust resistant. Some of these metals are very hard and have unusual strength and will maintain that strength for long periods of time at extremely high and low temperatures.
    Tool steels contain tungsten, melybderum and other alloying elements that give them extra strength, hardness, and is resistant to wear.

FLAME
    A flame by definition is a glowing body of mixed gasses going through the process of combustion. Flames are a mixture of oxygen and another gas such as hydrogen, carbon monoxide, or hydrocarbon. A typical flame is that of a candle. When the candle is lit the heat if the match melts the wax that is carried up the wick and then vaporized by the heat. The heat then breaks down the vaporized wax, and combines with the oxygen of the surrounding air, producing a flame and generating heat and light. The candle flame consists of three zones. The innermost zone is composed of a gas air mixture that is non luminous and is a low temperature. In the second, yellow luminous cone, hydrogen and carbon monoxide are produced by decomposition and begin to react with oxygen to form water and carbon dioxide. In this cone the temperature of the flame (about 590 degrees Celsius to 680 degrees Celsius) is great enough to detach the gasses in the flame and produce free particles of carbon, which are to incandescence and then consumed. In the incandescent cone the remaining carbon monoxide and hydrogen are consumed.
    If a cold object is passed through the outer portions of the flame the temperature of that part of the flame will be lowered below the point of combustion, and the unburned carbon and carbon monoxide will be given off. So if a porcelain dish is passed through the flame it will leave behind a residue in the form of soot. Operation of any kind of flame producing stove in a room that is dangerous because of the production of carbon monoxide, which is poisonous.
    All combustible substance requires specific amount of oxygen for complete burning. (A flame can continue in an atmosphere of pure chlorine, though combustion is not complete.) In the burning of the candle, or of solids such as wood or coal, this oxygen is supplied by the surrounding atmosphere. In blowpipes and various types of gas burners, air or pure oxygen is mixed with the gas at the base of the burner so that the carbon is consumed almost instantaneously at the mouth of the burner.

Table 1
Room Temperature (23 degrees C)
Metal     Copper     Brass     Steel     Annealed Steel     Galvanized Steel
Test 1     2,400       3,000     3,200        4,800                     5,400
Test 2     2,200       3,100     3,200        4,800                     5,400
Test 3     2,400       3,000     3,200        4,800                     5,300
Average  2,300       3,000     3,200       4,800                      5,400
 

Table 2
Liquid Nitrogen (-195.8 degrees C)
Metal     Copper     Brass     Steel     Annealed Steel*     Galvanized Steel
Test 1     2,500       3,000    3,500         5,000                         5,500
Test 2     2,500       2,900    3,000         3,700                         4,700
Test 3     2,500       2,950    3,200         4,700                         5,200
Average  2,500       2,950    3,200         4,500*                       5,100

Table 3
Propane (800 degrees C)
Metal     Copper     Brass     Steel     Annealed Steel*     Galvanized Steel
Test 1         0             0         97             95                             170
Test 2         0             0         99             160                           170
Test 3         0             0         95             140                           170
Average     0              0         97             132*                         170

Table 4
All Averages
Metal     Copper     Brass     Steel     Annealed Steel*     Galvanized Steel
195.8 C   2500        2950    3500         4500                         5100
23 C        2300        3000    3200         4800                         5400
800 C 0 0 97 132 170
*I was not able to make a conclusion on this wire because of its inconsistency

All tests are calculated with out adding the weight of the apparatus except for the copper and brass in the heat test.